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CaP/Camphene

Representative FE-SEM images of aligned porous CaP scaffolds produced with various CaP contents (15 vol% : (a),(d), 20 vol%: (b),(e), and 25 vol% : (c),(f)), showing their porous structures developed parallel to ((a),(b),(c)) and normal to ((d),(e),(f)) the direction of extrusion.

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CaP/Camphene

Representative FE-SEM images of aligned porous CaP scaffolds produced with heat-treatment at 33 °C for 3 h (CaP contents: (a) 15 vol%, (b) 20 vol%, and (c) 25 vol%).

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CaP/Camphene

Representative FE-SEM images of the MC3T3-E1 cells on aligned porous CaP scaffolds produced with various CaP contents: (a) 15 vol%, (b) 20 vol%, and (c) 25 vol%. Arrows indicate cells attached on the samples.

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Al2O3/Water

Macropores, freeze-cast alumina using water. Cross-section perpendicular to the solidification direction. Scale bar 100 μm.

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Deville, S. (2010). Freeze-casting of porous biomaterials: structure, properties and opportunities. Materials, 3(3), 1913-1927.

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HAP/Water

Microporosities in freeze-cast HAP. Scale bar 25 μm.

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Deville, S. (2010). Freeze-casting of porous biomaterials: structure, properties and opportunities. Materials, 3(3), 1913-1927.

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HAP/Water

Initial gradient. Cross-section parallel to the solidification direction. The displacement of the solidification interface occurred from bottom to top. Scale bar 100 μm.

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Deville, S. (2010). Freeze-casting of porous biomaterials: structure, properties and opportunities. Materials, 3(3), 1913-1927.

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Al2O3/Water

Diffusion defects in freeze-cast alumina. Cross-section parallel to the solidification direction. The displacement of the solidification interface occurred from left to right. Scale bar 700 μm.

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Deville, S. (2010). Freeze-casting of porous biomaterials: structure, properties and opportunities. Materials, 3(3), 1913-1927.

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Image by Aaron Shelhamer, Northern Illinois University

Unpublished experimental results
Dunand Research Group, Northwestern University

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Image by Kristen Scotti

Unpublished experimental results
Dunand Research Group, Northwestern University

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Image by Kristen Scotti

Unpublished experimental results
Dunand Research Group, Northwestern University

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Image by Lauren Kearney

Unpublished experimental results
Dunand Research Group, Northwestern University

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Image by Lauren Kearney

Unpublished experimental results
Dunand Research Group, Northwestern University

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ZrO2/Water

20 vol.% 40nm ZrO2 suspended in water and solidified using a cooling rate of 5K/min to a final cold plate temperature of 253K.

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Image by Lauren Kearney

Unpublished experimental results
Dunand Research Group, Northwestern University

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Copper with elongated pores produced by directional freeze casting of CuO powders, followed by ice sublimation, and heat treatment to reduce the oxide and sinter for metal powders.

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Directionally Solidified Ni, Cu, Co, and W Foams via Freeze-Casting
Sandra Häberli and André Röthlisberger under Prof. Ralph Spolenak; *Myounggeun Choi and Hyungyung Jo, under Prof. Heeman Choe

Unpublished experimental results
Dunand Research Group, Northwestern University

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Coming soon!

Directional porous copper foam (a) Longitudinal direction (b) Radial direction

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Directionally Solidified Ni, Cu, Co, and W Foams via Freeze-Casting
Sandra Häberli and André Röthlisberger under Prof. Ralph Spolenak; *Myounggeun Choi and Hyungyung Jo, under Prof. Heeman Choe

Unpublished experimental results
Dunand Research Group, Northwestern University

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Ni/Water

Directional porous nickel foam

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Directionally Solidified Ni, Cu, Co, and W Foams via Freeze-Casting
Sandra Häberli and André Röthlisberger under Prof. Ralph Spolenak; *Myounggeun Choi and Hyungyung Jo, under Prof. Heeman Choe

Unpublished experimental results
Dunand Research Group, Northwestern University

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Fe/Water

Vertical cross-section of an iron foam created by freeze-casting iron oxide, sublimating the ice crystals, reducing the oxide in hydrogen, and sintering. Freezing direction is from the bottom-up.

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Freeze-cast directionally-porous iron foams
Amelia Plunk

Unpublished experimental results
Dunand Research Group, Northwestern University

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Fe/Water

SEM micrograph showing the high surface area and microporosity of the scaffold walls created through freeze-casting and reduction

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Freeze-cast directionally-porous iron foams
Amelia Plunk

Unpublished experimental results
Dunand Research Group, Northwestern University

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LaCrO3-YSZ/Water

(right) BSC Stack: Blue layers are the electronically conductive LaCrO3 interconnect, the black layers are the YSZ electrolyte, the gray areas at the edges are the hermetic YSZ edge seals. The stack is assembled then sintered in the furnace

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NASA: Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC)

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Free to share, use, and adapt per NASA media usage guidelines

Macro photograph (a), and XRD patterns (b) of the porous bodies (30 vol.%) before and after vacuum sintering

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Ran, H., Feng, P., Liu, Z., Wang, X., Niu, J., & Zhang, H. (2015). Complex-Shaped Porous Cu Bodies Fabricated by Freeze-Casting and Vacuum Sintering. Metals, 5(4), 1821-1828.

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SEM of porous Cu bodies produced using different CuO contents: (a) 20 vol.%; (b) 30 vol.%; (c) 40 vol.%.

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Ran, H., Feng, P., Liu, Z., Wang, X., Niu, J., & Zhang, H. (2015). Complex-Shaped Porous Cu Bodies Fabricated by Freeze-Casting and Vacuum Sintering. Metals, 5(4), 1821-1828.

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The surfaces of porous Cu in different machining conditions: (a) machined in the sintered state; (b) machined in the green body state.

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Ran, H., Feng, P., Liu, Z., Wang, X., Niu, J., & Zhang, H. (2015). Complex-Shaped Porous Cu Bodies Fabricated by Freeze-Casting and Vacuum Sintering. Metals, 5(4), 1821-1828.

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YSZ/Water

SEM cross-sections of ice-templated samples (a) frozen at 2 °C/min, (b) frozen at 25 °C/min, (c) frozen at 2 °C/min with zirconium acetate (ZRA), and (d) made by pore formers. In all cases the total pore volume was around 51%.

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Seuba, J., Deville, S., Guizard, C., & Stevenson, A. J. (2016). Mechanical properties and failure behavior of unidirectional porous ceramics. Scientific reports, 6.

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YSZ/Water

Detail of a buckling fracture in an ice-templated sample.

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Seuba, J., Deville, S., Guizard, C., & Stevenson, A. J. (2016). Mechanical properties and failure behavior of unidirectional porous ceramics. Scientific reports, 6.

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CuO/Water

Freeze-cast Cu foam of macroporous layer-by-layer assembly.

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Um, J. H., Choi, M., Park, H., Cho, Y. H., Dunand, D. C., Choe, H., & Sung, Y. E. (2016). 3D macroporous electrode and high-performance in lithium-ion batteries using SnO2 coated on Cu foam. Scientific reports, 6.

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CuO/Water

SnO2-coated Cu foam electrode.

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CuO/Water

Morphology of SnO2/Cu foam electrode after 50 cycles and cell impedance test.

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Images showing the freeze cast silica/chitosan hybrid scaffolds. A light source was used to obtain a clearer scaffold appearance (shown on the right of the image). Oriented structures can be seen clearly and indicated by the arrows in the inset (the zoom-in image of the local area of the scaffold). X-ray micro-computed tomography (μCT) images of a freeze cast 60 wt% organic hybrid scaffold fabricated at a cooling rate of 10 °C min−1 (4060 GC4 10 °C min−1), which show the typical microstructures (b) perpendicular and (c) parallel to the freezing direction.

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Wang, D., Romer, F., Connell, L., Walter, C., Saiz, E., Yue, S., ... & Jones, J. R. (2015). Highly flexible silica/chitosan hybrid scaffolds with oriented pores for tissue regeneration. Journal of Materials Chemistry B, 3(38), 7560-7576.

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SEM images of freeze cast scaffolds fabricated with various compositions and cooling rates. Cross-sections perpendicular to the freezing direction, which show the cellular pore structures.

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SEM images of freeze cast scaffolds fabricated with various compositions and cooling rates. Cross-sections parallel to the freezing direction, which show the oriented pore structures.

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Images showing the compression behaviour of the freeze cast 60 wt% organic hybrid scaffolds fabricated at a cooling rate of 10 °C min−1 (4060 GC4 10 °C min−1). Scaffolds compressed (a) perpendicular to the freezing direction, which demonstrate the highly elastic behaviour, and (b) compressed parallel to the freezing direction by a compressor, which shows the rupture formation and failure to recover after the compression. The arrows on the sample indicate the freezing direction.

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Graphene/Water

Microstructures of sponge graphenes frozen at different temperatures.

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Xie, X., Zhou, Y., Bi, H., Yin, K., Wan, S., & Sun, L. (2013). Large-range control of the microstructures and properties of three-dimensional porous graphene. Scientific reports, 3.

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